Operational Mode Selection of Battery Swapping Supply Chains for New Energy Vehicles Based on Battery Leasing and Swapping Services

Motivated by the interplay between battery leasing and swapping services in the operational design of battery swapping supply chains, this study constructs a supply chain consisting of battery manufacturers, vehicle manufacturers, and battery asset companies. Three operational modes are examined: 1) vehicle manufacturers provide both battery leasing and swapping services; 2) vehicle manufacturers offer swapping only, while battery asset companies provide leasing; and 3) battery asset companies undertake both services. Based on a Stackelberg game model, the study analyzes the influence of the vehicle-to-battery price ratio, the second-life utilization rate, and the battery leasing duration on equilibrium decisions across different modes, and further compares the equilibrium outcomes. Results show that: 1) to boost product appeal, vehicle manufacturers should adopt a "low vehicle price, high battery price" strategy; 2) when lease periods are long, recycling enterprises prefer selling retired batteries to manufacturers for dismantling over second-life utilization; 3) the overall benefits to enterprises and consumers are maximized when vehicle manufacturers operate both services, followed by the case where battery asset companies undertake both services.